Full List 2006
ANKLESHWAR, INDIA
ARJO, ETHIOPIA
BAIA MARE, ROMANIA
BAIE DE HANNE, SENEGAL
BHOPAL, INDIA
CHERNOBYL, UKRAINE
COPSA MICA, ROMANIA
CUBATAO, BRAZIL
DZERZINSK, RUSSIA
HAINA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
HANFORD, UNITED STATES
HUAI RIVER, CHINA
KABWE, ZAMBIA
KANPUR, INDIA
KOLA PENINSULA, RUSSIA
KOMI, RUSSIA
LA OROYA, PERU
LINFEN, SHANXI PROVINCE, CHINA
MAGNITOGORSK, RUSSIA
MAILUU-SUU, KYRGYZSTAN
MARILAO, PHILIPPINES
MAYAK and Lake Karachay, CHELYABINSK Russia
MEXICO CITY, MEXICO
MT. DIWALWAL, PHILIPPINES
NEW ORLEANS, UNITED STATES
NIGER DELTA, NIGERIA
NORILSK, RUSSIA
OMAI , GUYANA
PICNIC GARDENS, KOLKATA, INDIA
RANIPET, INDIA
RUDNAYA PRISTAN/DALNEGORSK, RUSSIA
SPOLANA, CZECH REPUBLIC
SUMGAYIT, AZERBAIJAN
VAPI, INDIA
VOLGOGRAD, RUSSIA
Potentially affected people: 300,000
Dzerzhinsk Factories
Type of pollutants: Chemicals and toxic byproducts from
Cold War-era chemical weapons manufacturing, including Sarin, VX gas, lewisite - the poisonous effect of which is owed to its
arsenic trioxide content, yperite (mustard gas), prussic acid, phosgene,
dioxins and other persistent organic chemicals.
Lead, from an additives manufacturer, now closed.
Site description: In
Dzerzhinsk, a significant center of the Russian chemical manufacturing, the
average life expectancy is 42 years for men and 47 for women. Until the end of
the Cold War, the city was among
The city draws its
drinking water from the same aquifers into which these old wastes and unused
products were pumped. Now that many of these industries are no longer in
operation, the local groundwater has risen, along with the water level in the
canal. This rise in the canal's water level threatens to dump arsenic,
mercury, lead and dioxins into the Oka river basin, a source of drinking water
for the nearby city of
Despite the heavy toll on the
population’s health, a
quarter of the city's 300,000 residents are still employed in factories that
turn out toxic chemicals. According to a 2003 BBC report it is the young who
are most vulnerable. In the
local cemetery, there are a shocking number of graves of people below the age
of 40. In 2003 it was reported that the death rate exceeded the birth rate by
2.6 times and it is easy to see why. The dioxins that get into the water as a
by-product of chlorine production are reported to cause cancer even in minute
doses.
Cleanup Activity: Following the support of a baseline research project in the area in
2004, Blacksmith, in cooperation with the local government, has funded the
installation of water treatment systems in Pyra (population 4,000), and
Gavirolvka, settlements whose
groundwater is highly polluted, yet remains the sole source of drinking water.
In addition, Blacksmith has funded the establishment of a steering committee
led by a local NGO (DRONT) in cooperation with the Nizhniy Novgorod municipal
government, to begin the design of a large-scale remediation and pollution
mitigation plan for the entire affected area.
In 2004 the local
government conducted an initial evaluation of the extent of the groundwater
contamination in the city and reviewed subsequent engineering options to bring
clean water in to Dzerzhinsk to replace use of the contaminated groundwater
source in Gavrilovka and Pyra, two areas of the city
INFORMATION
* Dzerzhinsk Chemical Plant
Workers Call for Better Pensions : FBIS-TAC-97-119 : 29 Apr 1997
* Russian Chemical Weapons Sites
Undergo Foreign Inspection : FBIS-TAC-98-068 : 9 Mar 1998
M R. Edelstein. “EMPOWERING
RUSSIAN AND AMERICAN NGOs TO ADDRESS ISSUES OF FUTURE SUSTAINABILITY” FINAL PROJECT REPORT.
(2005) http://phobos.ramapo.edu/facassem/edelsteinempoweringngos.html
“Dzerzhinksk” Global Security
Organization.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/dzerzhinsk_cbw.htm
Tim Samuals, “
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/correspondent/2821835.stm
LINFEN,
Potential population affected: 200,000
Type of pollutants: Fly-ash, carbon
monoxide, Nitrogen oxides, PM-2.5, PM-10, Sulfur dioxide, volatile organic compounds,
arsenic, lead.
Site
Description : When asked to comment
on the environmental conditions of Linfen, one environmental expert quipped, “If you have a grudge against someone, let
this guy become a permanent citizen of Linfen! Why? For punishment!"
The
Annual Report on Environmental Management and Comprehensive Improvement in Key
Cities for Environmental Protection in 2003, by the State Environmental
Protection Administration (SEPA), indicated that Linfen is the city with the
worst air quality in
Another
epidemic found in this province is Arsenicosis, an environmental chemical
disease caused by drinking elevated concentrations of arsenic found in
water. Chronic exposure to this toxic
chemical result in skin lesions, peripheral vascular disease, hypertension,
blackfoot disease, and high risk of cancers. One study of
Compounding
the pollution problem is the city’s economic dependence on the coal, steel, and
tar industries as well as
Cleanup
Activity: Information on progress towards cleanup in this area is not
currently readily available.
Note: Linfen
acts in the Top Ten as an example of highly polluted cities in
INFORMATION
China Internet Information Center Shanxi Province China
Qin Jize.
“Most polluted cities in
“The
Most Polluted City in the World: Sixteen of the 20 most polluted cities in the
world are in
“Environmental
quality stable in general: report.” People's Daily Online
(2004) July 14, 2004.
http://english.people.com.cn/200407/14/eng20040714_149521.html
Y. F. Li, Y. J. Zhang, G. L. Cao.
“Distribution of seasonal SO2 emissions from fuel combustion and
industrial activities in the
G. Sun. “Arsenic contamination and arsenicosis in
S-g Wang, J-l Zhang. “Blood lead levels of children in
Mary Kay Magistad “Land of
Pollution.” The World. (2006) July 17, 2006.
http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/4059
Kristin Aunan, Jinghua Fang,
Haakon Vennemo, Kenneth Oye, Hans M. Seip. “Co-benefits of climate
policy-lessons learned from a study in
Potentially affected people: 250,000
Type of pollutants: Lead, cadmium
Children Scavenging the Mine
Site
description: Kabwe, the second largest city in
Sick Mine Scavenger
In the
Cleanup Activity: After decades of contamination, the clean-up strategy for
Kabwe is complex and in its primary stages. The first step is to educate the
community about the risks of lead poisoning and their susceptibility to the
pollutant. Precautionary measures have been taken in order to educate the
population about the problem and to provide simple, concrete advice to avoid
poison (such as to prohibit children from playing in the dirt and to rinse dust
from plates and food etc.). Some areas of Kabwe require drastic remediation in
which some entire neighborhoods may need to relocate.
Blacksmith has helped
Kabwe's environment by establishing a local NGO, Kabwe Environmental and
Rehabilitation Foundation (KERF) whose role is to bring educational services
into each community with nursing support and expertise to locals as well. As a
result of Blacksmith's local initiatives and involvement, the World Bank has
stepped in. The Bank approved a $20 million grant to clean up the city and has
just completed the scoping study that will lead to initial clean-up activity
beginning in 2007.
INFORMATION
“The
Silent Death Lead Poisoning in Kabwe,
Penny Dale. “
B. Leteinturier, J. Laroche, J. Matera, and F. Malaisse. “Reclamation of lead/zinc processing wastes at
B. D. Tembo, K
Sichilongo, J. Cernak. “Distribution of
copper, lead, cadmium, and zinc concentrations in soils around Kabwe town in
Potentially affected people: 134,000
Type of pollutants: Air pollution – particulates
including Strontium-90, Caesium-137, Sulfur dioxide, heavy metals (nickel,
copper, cobalt, lead, selenium), particulates, nitrogen and carbon oxides,
phenols, hydrogen sulfide.
Site description: An industrial city founded in 1935 as a slave
labor camp, the Siberian city of
Due to the geographic location, reports on ecological
impacts and contamination are infrequent from this location. In 1999, a report found elevated copper and
nickel concentrations in soils up to a 60 km radius. The city population has been affected by air
quality in this region of smelters, where it has been shown over half of all
samples exceed the maximum allowable concentrations for both copper and
nickel. A report in 1995 indicated that
high levels of respiratory diseases have been observed in children around this
area, and that these are most likely related to the air pollution from the
smelter activity. Investigations
evaluating the presence of ear, nose and throat disease among schoolchildren revealed
that children living near the copper plant were twice as likely to become ill
than those living in further districts. Similarly, children living near the
nickel plant were shown to become ill at a rate 1.5 times higher than children
from further districts. Analysis also showed that problems during the last half
of pregnancy as well as premature births were much more frequent in
Since November 2001,
Cleanup Activity
Many groups, some supported by international donors, have
tried to address the problems. In the 1980’s emission reductions were tried by
building dust and gas removal facilities, and also electrostatic precipitators
and liquid phase sulfur removals. These
technologies aided in sulfate reduction, but studies proved that damage to
forests and concentrations of metals remained a significant problem to date.
INFORMATION
S. M. Allen-Gil, J. Ford, B. K. Lasorsa, M. Monetti, et
al. “Heavy metal contamination in the
J. M. Blais, K. E. Duff, T.E. Laing, J.P. Smol. “Regional contamination in lakes from the
Noril’sk region in
O.N. Zubareva, L. N. Skripal’shchikova, N. V. Greshilova,
and V. I. Kharuk. “Zoning of landscapes
exposed to technogenic emissions from the Norilsk Mining and Smeltering
works”. Russian Journal of Ecology
(2003) 34 (6) 375-380.
B. A. Revich. “Public
health and ambient air pollution in Arctic and Subarctic cities of
Mines And Communities Website. “Hell on Earth.” April 18,
2003. http://www.minesandcommunities.org/Action/press139.htm
Potentially affected people: 85,000
Type of pollutants: Lead.
Site
description: This highly populated area known as Bajos de Haina is severely
contaminated with lead from a closed down automobile battery recycling
smelter. The Dominican Secretary of
Environment and Natural Resources, since its creation in 2000, has identified
Haina as a national hotspot of significant concern. Various studies have
found alarming lead levels in the Haina community, with blood and soil levels
several orders of magnitude over regular limits. The contamination is caused by the past
industrial operations of the nearby Metaloxa battery plant. Although the
company has moved to a new site (which is contaminating a new neighborhood,
albeit less populous), the contamination still remains.
Child
standing on battery casing
The most common symptom of Haina’s
pollution is lead poisoning, which affects children's health and development. Kaul tested children near the auto battery
recycling plant in Haina.
When the plant closed in March 1997, 116 children were
surveyed, and again in August 1997, 146 children were surveyed. Mean
blood lead concentrations were 71 µg/dL (range: 9–234 µg/dL) in
March and 32 µg/dL (range: 6–130 µg/dL) in August. The study
revealed that at least 28% of the children required immediate treatment and
that 5% had lead levels >79 µg/dL.
Only 9% of these children were under the WHO recommended 9 µg/dL for
maximum concentration. The children were
also at risk for severe neurologic consequences at the time of the study.
Another study released by the Chemical Institute of Autonomous University of Santo Domingo (UASD)
found lead levels in inhabitants over 100 parts per million (ppm), whereas
"normal" levels in children are considered to be 10 ppm and for
adults 20 ppm. Birth deformities, eye damage, learning and personality
disorders, and in some cases, death from lead poisoning have also been reported
at a higher than normal rate due to contamination caused by the past operations
of the battery plant.
Cleanup Activity: In early planning stages, with Blacksmith
Institute advice and support.
INFORMATION
Note: This site is
included in the Top Ten as an example of lead battery re-processing facilities.
These factories can be found in many major third world cities, and often leave
a legacy of lead poisoning in their host communities. Haina is the most
severely polluted site of this kind known to Blacksmith Institute.
J. Caravanos, R. Fuller.
“Polluted Places—Initial Site Assessment”. Blacksmith Institute. (2006)
February 22. http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/docs/haina1.doc
B. Kaul, R. S. Sandhu, C Depratt, and F Reyes. “Follow-up screening of lead-poisoned
children near an auto battery recycling plant,
“Industrial Waste Minimization in the low
IWCAM/2nd%20Steering%20Cmttee%20Meeting/Dominican%20Republic%20Demo%20Submission%20040130.doc
Potentially affected people: Initially 5.5 million,
now disputed levels of effect.
Type of pollutants: Uranium,
Plutonium,
Radioactive
Iodine, Cesium-137,
Strontium,
and other metals
Site description: The world's worst nuclear
disaster took place on April 26, 1986, when testing in the
Within seven months, the reactor was buried in a
concrete casing designed to absorb radiation and contain the remaining fuel.
However, the sarcophagus was only meant to be a temporary solution and designed
to last 20 or 30 years. A program to re-contain the site is underway.
One major reason for the concern is that though an enormous
amount of radiation was released during the disaster, most of the radioactivity
remained trapped within the plant itself. Some estimate that more than 100
tons of uranium and other radioactive products, such as plutonium,
remain to be released if there is another accident.
Thyroid cancer in children surrounding this area is a main
health problem. Over 4000 thyroid cases
had been diagnosed since 2002. Most of these cases have been attributed to
elevated concentrations of radioiodine found in milk. It is hard to project lethal cancer rates and
other health risks associated with this fallout. What is known is more than five million people currently inhabit the
affected areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, which have all been classified
as ‘contaminated’ with radionuclides due to the Chernobyl accident (above 37
kBq m-2 of 137Cs).
Furthermore, from 1992 to 2002 in
A recent WHO report has indicated that the impact on future
generations from radioactivity is now quite low. However this report has been
met with skepticism from local and international experts.
Cleanup Activity
Expert groups such have carried out work on health impacts,
remediation effects, and socioeconomic status of the region surrounding
Note: Given its
resounding infamy, despite the subsequent progress that has been made at this
site, we felt Chernobyl must be included in this Top Ten list due to its
residual environmental impact as well as its potential to further affect such
an extensive region and population.
INFORMATION
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency. “
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency. “Environmental consequences of the
http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf
World Health Organization. “Health Effects of the
LA
Potentially affected people: 35,000
Type of pollutants: Lead, copper, zinc, and sulfur
dioxide.
La Oroya Smelter
Site description: Since 1922, adults and children in La
Oroya,
Sulfur dioxide concentrations also exceed the World Health
Organization emissions standards by ten fold.
The vegetation in the surrounding area has been destroyed by acid rain
due to high sulfur dioxide emissions. To
date, the extent of soil contamination has not been studied and no plan for
reduction of emissions has been agreed or implemented.
Numerous studies have been carried out to assess the levels
and sources of lead and other metals still being deposited in La Oroya. Limited testing has revealed lead, arsenic
and cadmium soil contamination throughout the town. However, all of these studies were focused on
outdoor contamination and suspected severe indoor air pollution has not yet
been assessed in detail..
Cleanup Activity
INFORMATION
“Development of an
integrated intervention plan to reduce exposure to lead and other contaminants
in the mining center of La Oroya,
http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/Docs/la_oroya_report.pdf
“Crisis Deepens in La Oroya” Oxfam
Potentially affected people: 3,500,000
Type of pollutants: Tannery waste, containing
hexavalent chromium and azodyes
Site
description: Ranipet is located about 100 miles upstream from Chennai, the
fourth largest urban area in
The contamination of the soil and groundwater with
wastewater, as well as run off from solid wastes has affected the health,
resources, and livelihood of thousands of people. In a residential colony about
1 kilometer from the factory. Three open
wells, a dozen bore wells and about 25 public hand pumps have been abandoned
due to high chromium levels in the water. Agricultural land about a kilometer
from the factory has also been affected. There is widespread fear that if this
pollution is left unchecked, the Palar basin, the main drinking water source in
the region, could also be contaminated. Indian farmers who have the misfortune
of cultivating this toxic land claim that the toxic waste from the nearby
tanneries degrades the fertility of the land citing that “ invariably, only one
in five crops does well.” Farmers also
complain of the foul smells which emanate from the very water they use to
irrigate their fields claiming that, “when we come in contact with the water we
get ulcerations on our skins and it stings like an insect bite.”
Cleanup Activity: In 1996 the government shut down Tamil Nadu Chromates & Chemicals Limited
(TCC), the factory responsible for an estimated 1.5 million tons of untreated
chromate sludge. In May 2005 Blacksmith Institute visited this
site. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board authorities have assigned the
National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI) and National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) to design and implement remediation
plans to cleanup this site.
An effective solution to tackle
the issue of chromate leaching from the legacy site would be to encapsulate the
waste dumpsite to prevent further leaching and treating the subsurface soil of
the channel-flows.
INFORMATION
http://www.tehelka.com/story_main13.asp?filename=Ne071605Tanneries_pollute.asp
“Polluted Places” Blacksmith Institute. http://www.pollutedplaces.org/region/south_asia/india/ranipet.shtml
“Polluted Places:
http://www.adb.org/Projects/PEP/ind.asp
RUDNAYA PRISTAN/
Potentially affected people: 90,000
Type of pollutants: Lead, cadmium, mercury, antimony
Site
description: Dalnegorsk and Rudnaya Pristan are two towns in the Russian
Far East whose residents suffer from serious lead poisoning from an old smelter
and the unsafe transport of lead concentrate from the local lead mining site.
According to the most recent study, lead concentrations in residential gardens
(476-4310 mg/kg, Gmean=1626 mg/kg) and in roadside soils (2020-22900 mg/kg,
Gmean=4420 mg/kg) exceed USEPA guidance for remediation by orders of magnitude.
These data suggest that drinking water, interior dust, and garden crops also
likely contain dangerous levels of lead. Water discharged from the smelter
averages 2900 m3/day with concentrations up to 100 kg of lead and 20 kg
arsenic.
Limited initial testing has revealed that children's blood
lead levels are 8 to 20 times the maximum allowable
Since 1930 there has not been any attempt to address
associated health concerns by either an educational or a technical environmental
program. In fact, as Sharov points out, the residents of the area were simply
left to deal with their health risk problems on their own and are largely
unaware of the risks. Furthermore, some residents in Rudnaya use old casings of
submarine batteries that were recycled by the smelter in order to collect
precipitation for watering their gardens.
Cleanup Activity
The lead smelter has
now been voluntarily shut down, after Blacksmith presented the owner with data
on the health risks to children of lead contamination. In addition, children’s
blood lead levels are being tested, and those with elevated levels are being
treated with Blacksmith funding. This
funding has also supported a program of education to all residents, and local
education and testing through the community is ongoing. Next, a plan to remediate the worst of the
contamination needs to be drawn up and implemented.
INFORMATION
M. C. Von Braun, I. H. von
Lindern, N. K. Khristoforova, and et a. “Environmental lead contamination in
the Rudnaya Pristan--Dalnegorsk mining and smelter district, Russian far
East”. Environmental Research Section A
(2002) 88, 164-173.
A. N. Kachur, V. S.
Arzhanova, P. V. Yelpatyevsky, M. C. von Braun, and I.H. von Lindern. “Environmental
conditions in the
P.O. Sharov, Lead Contamination of Environment in
Potentially affected people: 23,000 immediate,
millions potentially
Type of pollutants: Radioactive uranium mine tailings. Gamma radiation from the dumps
measures in between 100-600 micro-roentgens per hour. Heavy metals, and cyanides.
Site description: There are twenty-three tailing
dumps and thirteen waste rock dumps scattered throughout Mailuu-Suu, home to a
former Soviet uranium plant. From 1946-1968 the plant produced and processed
more than 10,000 metric tons of uranium ore, products which were eventually
used to produce the Soviet Union’s first atomic bomb.
What remains now are
not atomic bombs, but 1.96 million
cubic meters of radioactive
mining waste that threatens the entire Ferghana valley, one of the most fertile
and densely populated area in
Due to the high rates of seismic activity in the area,
millions of people in
The poor design
and management of the waste areas also allows transfer of some material from
these piles to surrounding areas by runoff.
Research has found some groups getting very high doses of radon probably
due to use of this runoff water in agricultural practices. Risk analyses have also been conducted to
assess the radioactive contamination that could occur with more natural
disasters, and have found these could lead to potential large-scale
environmental contamination. A 1999 study conducted by the
Cleanup
Activity: The World Bank has begun a project for
INFORMATION
IRIN
News Org. “KYRGYZSTAN
IRIN
News Org. “KYRGYZSTAN
http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=46933&SelectRegion=Asia
Sarah MacGregor. “Finding a Solution for Uranium Waste in
Environment News Service (ENS). “
M. Kozlova. “Worries
Fester over radioactive tailings”.
http://www.asiawaterwire.net/node/74
“Safety of Uranium Dumps in
Nurlan Djenchuraev.
Current Environmental issues associated with mining wastes in
I. A. Vasiliev, D. S. Barber, V. M. Alekhina, et al. “Uranium levels in the Naryn and MAiluu-Suu
rivers of
H. Vandenhove, L. Sweeck, D. Mallants, et al. “Assessment of radiation exposure in the
uranium mining and milling area of
Appendix 1: The Nominations that Did Not Make the Top Ten
Here are the 25 nominated sites that were included in the
long list but not chosen for the Top Ten.
Potentially affected people: 165 million
Type of pollutants: industrial, agricultural and municipal
pollutants
Site description: The
Through the 1990’s
Cleanup Activities
In 1995, the State Council set a goal to remediate the
SEPA intended to clean up
B.Xuemei, S. Peijun.
“Pollution Control in
“Technical Assistance to the People’s Republic of China for the
evaluation of environmental policy and investment for water pollution control
in the Huai River Basin and the Taihu Lake Basin” Asian Development Bank. TAR: PRC 38555. (2004)
November.
“Huai River
Basin Pollution Control Project”.
http://us.tom.com/english/2190.htm
Potentially affected people: 1.3 million
Type of pollutants: Radioactive and nuclear wastes
Site description: Kola Peninsula lies in far northwestern
The Kola Peninsula as a whole suffered major ecological
damage, mostly as a result of pollution from the military (particularly naval)
production, as well as from industrial mining of apatite. There are currently
about 250 nuclear reactors produced by the Soviet military on the peninsula,
which are no longer in use but still generate radiation and leak radioactive
waste.
Other investigations into the radiological doses in seafood
surrounding the peninsula have linked the problems to nuclear weapons testing,
nuclear reprocessing discharges and the
Cleanup Activities: In 1999, the project direction shifted
and became more focused as the Russian shipyard’s needs became better defined
within the budgetary realities of the program. This shift inspired the creation
of a Mobile Pretreatment Facility (MPF) to permit solid waste sorting, volume
reduction and containerization at current storage locations on the
Review and
Implementation of Technology for Solid Radioactive Waste Volume Reduction.
Govt Reports Announcements & Index (GRA&I), Issue 20,
2003
Annual rept.
Throw Weights to
Metric Tons: The Radioactive Waste Problems of
Potentially affected people: 275,000
Type of pollutants: Organic Pollutants, Oil, Heavy Metals
Site description: Sumgayit city was founded in the 1950’s
as a Soviet industrial center. It is the site of 23 factories which at one time
were the major production site of industrial and agricultural chemicals for the
Cleanup activities
Sumgayit Centre for environmental Rehabilitation has started an
education program for contamination and dangers associated. From 2003 the World Bank has been funding the
cleanup of the chlor-alkali plant where the 1,566 tons of mercury have been
spilled.
J.E. Andruchow, C.L. Soskolne, F.
Racioppi, et al. “Cancer
Incidence and Mortality in the Industrial City of Sumgayit, Azerbaijan”. Int J. Occupational Environmental Health. (2006).
12 (3). 234-241. http://www.ijoeh.com/pfds/IJOEH_1203_Andruchow.pdf.
J. W. Bickham, C. W. Matson, A. Islamzadeh, et al. “Editorial: The
unknown environmental tragedy in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan” Ecotoxicology, (2003). 12, 505-508.
“The State of environment. Azebaijan.” Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources
of the Republic of Azerbaijan. http://www.eco.gov.az/v2.1/az/Azerbaijan/Eco_En.htm
Azerbaijan Country Environmental Analysis. Asian Development Bank. (2006) Jan.
CUBATAO, BRAZIL
Potentially affected people: More than 2 million
Type of pollutants: Chlorinated
chemicals like hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorbutadiene, carbon tetrachloride,
perchloroethtlene, and hexachlorethane, sewage.
Site description:
Cubatao, a city in the state of Sao Paulo in Brazil, is the
location of the largest commercial harbor and also petrochemical and
metallurgical industrial complexes. Led by huge state corporations like
COSIPA (steel) and PETROBRAS (oil), the Cubatao valley developed into an
industrial complex so large that by 1985 it accounted for 3 percent of Brazil's
GDP. The
Cubatao River has 130 industries sitting on the shoreline, and has discharged
10,000 kg monthly of industrial pollutants of zinc, phenols, mercury, and oil
since the 1980’s. The sewage problem is
exacerbated from the population increase to 800,000 people, whereby only 90%
have sewage treatment. Approximately 1.5
million tons of raw sewage is drained in the Cubatao River. A study conducted in 1999 (Medeiros) found
hydrocarbons to be prevalent in the area with correlations pointing towards the
Cubatao industrial complexes, sewage outfalls, and poorly designed storage
units in the Santos city designed to hold petroleum products.
Researchers also found excessive
cancer rates in Cubatao. Cancer of the nervous system, including the brain, are
four times more likely while lung, throat, mouth and pancreatic cancer are
twice as high compared to surrounding areas. During the late 70’s and early
80’s there was an epidemic of recorded births of infants born without brains,
although researchers were never able to prove its relation to the industrial
pollution. Half of Cubatao’s residents were thought to suffer from respiratory
ailments. In the early 1980s the city recorded the highest infant mortality
rate in Brazil, and over one-third of the residents suffered from pneumonia,
tuberculosis, emphysema, and other respiratory sicknesses.
Cleanup Activities
According to a World Bank report much has changed in the Cubatao
Valley in the past 15 years as the result of progressive reforms by CETESB (the
state’s pollution control agency) furthered by the support of an aroused
populace. Still, wastewater management as well as drinking water supply
services are the most important issues facing Brazil today. To deal with this
issue Brazil created the National Water Agency in July 2000. This marks an
important milestone in the process of creating stable water resource management
policies. This regulatory agency will establish a national system that will
oversee water resource management at the regional and local levels. Brazil's
goal is to not only ensure consistency in the water supply but also to protect
the quality of the nation's bodies of water.
Considerable sums are being invested already. About US$1.1 billion
has been used to clean up the Tietę River, which contained high concentrations
of nickel and cadmium from untreated industrial wastewater and coliform
bacteria from household waste. Over the next two years, another US$400 million
is to be invested in the project, which will provide wastewater treatment to
400,000 families and increase control of industrial emissions, according to
Geraldo Juliăo dos Santos, a representative from the Basic Sanitation Company
of the State of Săo Paulo, a state-owned water company that is funding the
Tietę Project along with the Inter-American Development Bank. According to dos
Santos, the project was created in 1991 due to intense popular demand. Reports
from that time indicated that the necessary investments required to make water
supply and wastewater treatment services available to all Brazilians would
amount to no less than US$14 billion, rising to US$22 billion when considering
population growth through 2010.
www.fluoridealert.org/pollution/1252.html
P.M. Medeiros, M. C. Bicego. “Investigation of natural and anthropogenic hydrocarbon
inputs in sediments using geochemical markers.
I. Santos, SP—Brazil”. Marine
Pollution Bulletin (2004) 49. 761-769.
The National Economic Policies: Pollution’s Hidden Half. Chapter five.
Greening Industry. World Bank Group.
(2006) www.worldbank.org/research/greening/cha5new.htm
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3983176&dopt=Abstract
LAA Pereira, C. De Sousa, M Gleic,
ALF Braga. “Cardiovascular effects of air pollution in adults in Cubatao, Sao
Paulo, Brazil”. Environmental Sciences
and Pollution Mgmt. (2004) 15 (4) p.
S21.
“Turning Point: Environmental Health in
Brazil”. Environmental Health
Perspectives. (2000) 108 (11).http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108-11/focus.html
MAYAK and Lake
Karachay, CHELYABINSK Russia
Potentially affected people: 50,000
Type of pollutants: Radiation
Site Description: “At one time, the most contaminated
side of the small bog-like lake—just a few hundred meters across—was so “hot”
that a 30-minute exposure would be fatal for 50% of humans,” reports one expert
who visited the site for Environmental
Health Perspectives. Lake Karachay at Chelyabinsk-65, a Russian nuclear
weapon production site, contains 120 million curies of radioactivity, mostly
cesium-137. In the past 45 years, about half a million people in the region
have been irradiated in one or more of the incidents, exposing them to as much
as 20 times the radiation suffered by the Chernobyl victims. From 1949 to
1956 members of the public were exposed via discharge of very large quantities
of radioactive liquid wastes into the Techa River. Then, in 1957 further
exposure came as the result of an explosion in the radioactive waste
storage, coupled with numerous gaseous aerosol releases occurring within the
first decades of the facility's operation. Residents of many villages
downstream on the Techa River were exposed via a variety of pathways; the more
significant included drinking of water from the river and external gamma
exposure due to proximity to sediments and shoreline.
The Mayak weapons manufacturing complex had been using Lake
Karachay as a dumping basin for its high level radioactive waste since 1951. In
1967, a drought reduced the water level of the lake, and gale-force winds
spread the radioactive dust throughout twenty-five thousand square kilometers,
further irradiating 436,000 people with five million curies, approximately the
same as at Hiroshima. Russian doctors who study radiation sickness in the area
estimate that those living along the Techa River received an average of four
times more radiation than the Chernobyl victims. The river is the only source
of water for the 24 villages which lined its banks. The four largest of those
villages were never evacuated, and only recently have the authorities revealed
to the population why they strung barbed wire along the banks of the river some
35 years ago.
Clean-up activities
Access to Lake Karachay has been cut off and the area isolated, to
limit the risk to people.
Slawomir Grunberg.
“Chelyabinsk The most contaminated spot on the planet”. Documentary Film by LogIN Productions.
http://www.logtv.com/chelya/default.html
“Chelyabinsk-65/ Ozersk Combine 817/Production Association Mayak” Global
Security.org.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/chelyabinsk-65_nuc.htm
R. Clay. “Cold War Hot Nukes Legacy of an Era”. Environmental Health Perspectives. (2001) April.
109 (4) A162-A169. http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2001/109-4/focus.pdf#search=%22MAYAK%20and%20Lake%20Karachay%20environmental%20health%22
L. Skpperud, B. Salbu, D. H. Oughton,
E. Drozcho, et al. “Plutonium
contamination in soils and sediments at Mayak PA, Russia”. Health Physics. (2005) 89 (3) 255-266.
MO Degteva, MI Vorobiova, VP Kozheurov, et al. “Dose reconstruction system for the exposed
population living along the Techa River”.
Health Physics. (2000) 78 (5) 542-554.
MEXICO CITY,
MEXICO
Potentially affected people: 15 million
Type of pollutants: Ozone, SO2, SOx, NOx, pm2.5-pm10, HC,
VOC, general exhaust
Site description: Mexico City has the worst air
pollution in the country and ranks among the most polluted cities in the world.
Its ozone levels exceed World Health Organization standards 300 days a year,
and SEMARNAT has estimated that the air in the busy border town of Ciudad
Juarez is 40% less contaminated than in the capital. Exhaust fumes from Mexico
City's estimated 4 million motor vehicles, many of which are old and especially
environmentally damaging, are the main source of air pollutants. The city's air
problem is aggravated by its unique geography. Mexico City resides in a basin
more than 7,400 feet above sea level and is surrounded on three sides by
mountains. These isolate the city from regional weather disturbances and trap
pollution.
Health is estimated at even 10% reduction in PM10 would save 3,000
lives and 10,000 new cases of chronic bronchitis. Ozone reduction by 10% would save 300 lives
and 2 million minor restricted activity days.
Cleanup Activities:
In 2002, the Secretary of the Environment signed an agreement with
World Resources Institute to implement a sustainable transport system in order
to cut back on emissions. This will
focus on bus transport systems and retrofit of diesel vehicles in order to cut
back air pollutants.
Mexico City has achieved air quality regulation standards for four
of the six main pollutants: lead, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen
oxides. The remaining problems are ozone
and particulates.
“Index of Leading Environmental Indicators: The nature and sources
of ecological progress in the US and the World”
The Pacific Research Institute. (2006). http://www.pacificresearch.org/pub/sab/enviro/06_enviroindex/27_mexico.html
“Mexico: Environmental Issues.”
Energy Information Administration Official Energy Statistics from the
U.S Government. (2004) http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/mexenv.html
http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/CASES/MEX/
G McKinley, M Zuk, M Hojer, et al. “Quantification of Local and
global benefits from air pollution control in Mexico City”. Environmental Science and Technology. (2005)
39, 1954-1961.
I Schifter, L. Diaz, E Lopez-Salinas. “Hazardous air pollutants from mobile sources
in the metropolitan area of Mexico City” Journal of the Air & Waste
Management Association. (2005) Sep. 55 (9).
BAIA MARE,
ROMANIA
Potentially affected people: 140,000
Type of pollutants: cyanide, copper, other heavy metals
Site Description: In January 2000, a breach in the
tailings dam of the Aurul S.A. Baia Mare Company, released some 100,000 mł of
cyanide-rich tailings waste into the river system near Baia Mare in northwest
Romania. This spill released an estimated 50-100 tons of cyanide, as well as
heavy metals, particularly copper, into the Somes, Tisza and finally into the
Danube Rivers before reaching the Black Sea. The company processes solid wastes
from earlier mining activity to recover precious metals, especially gold and
silver. The company started operation in May 1999, by processing an existing 30
year-old tailings dam (Meda dam) located near Baia Mare, to the west and close
to the residential area. After extreme weather conditions (ice and snow on the
tailing pond, high precipitation), the tailings deposited on the inner
embankment became soaked. Stability was affected, causing local displacement,
and this subsequently developed into breach of approximately 23 meters. The
water released through the breach filled the area between the two embankments
and spilled over the outer embankment. The volume of water released from the
dam was estimated to be around 100,000 m3. Contamination of the Somes/Szamos
stream, a tributary of the Tisza River, contamination and interruption of the
drinking water in 24 locations and of 2.5 million people, massive fish-kill and
destruction of aquatic species in the river systems, severe negative impact on
biodiversity, the rivers' ecosystems, drinking water supply and socio-economic
conditions of the local population
Cleanup Activity: Measures carried out immediately
after the spill as well as currently implemented measures reflect the efforts
of countries along the course of the river including, Hungary, Romania and
Slovakia, to achieve current EC
water-resources management standards with regard to water quantity, water
quality, environmental standards, drinking-water quality, flood protection,
navigation, etc., as soon as possible.
For this purpose these countries are currently working on an integrated
Tisa River basin management plan in compliance with the EC Water Framework
Directive. Nevertheless, many tasks still remain to allow implementation of
recommended action and prevention measures.
P. Soldan, M. Pavonic, J. Boucek, and J. Kokes. “Baia Mare Accident—Brief Ecotoxicological
Report of Czech Experts”. Ecotoxicology
and Environmental Safety. (2001) 49, 255-261.
“Tailings Spill Accident in
Baia Mare, Romania” Mineral Resources Forum. (2002).
http://www.mineralresourcesforum.org/incidents/BaiaMare/summary.htm
“The Cyanide spill at Baia Mare, Romania: Before, during, and
after”. Report by UNEP/OCHA. (2000)
Feb-March. www.rec.org/REC/Publications/CyanideSpill/ENGCyanide.pdf
T. Cramer, S. Kistinger. “Risk and water resource management in the
Tisa River basin”. Wasser und Boden [Wasser Boden]. (2003) 55, (5), 33-37.
COPSA MICA,
ROMANIA
Potentially affected people:
10,000
Type of pollutants:
lead, zinc, cadmium, SO2, carbon dust
Site Description:
Rapid expansion of industrialization in this valley from 1950s to 1990s
was focused around a major factory producing carbon black (for dyes and tyres)
and a large non-ferrous metal smelter.
During the Ceausescu regime, Copsa Mica was one of the unfortunate sites
where high polluting industries were focused.
Unfortunately, the plants did not receive adequate resources and
maintenance and as they fell into dis-repair both workers and the surrounding
countryside were subjected to increasing levels of toxic pollution. Lead levels in the plants were reported to
have reached 1,000 times allowable national limits.
After the communist era, efforts were made to deal with the
problems. In 1993, the carbon black
factory was closed and UNIDO brought in international expertise to help the
Government to deal with the smelter.
Cutbacks in production also had the effect of reducing emissions. However, the surrounding area remains polluted
with toxic metals. There is widespread
lung disease, impotence, a life expectancy that is 6 years below the national
average, one of the highest infant mortality rates in Europe and other
neurobehavioral problems typically associated with lead poisoning.
Cleanup
Activities: Efforts to date have produced significant improvements but the
smelter continues to operate, hampered by lack of resources to complete the
needed environmental upgrading. Between 1993 and 2001, concentrations of all major
pollutants decreased significantly, however, Copsa Mica remains extremely
polluted. In the Tarnava Mare river, downstream from Copsa Mica, despite the
considerable decrease that was noticed over the last decade, the lead
concentration remains more than twice the maximum admitted value (MAV), zinc
almost ten times, cadmium is close to MAV, and copper is about half of MAV.
E. Udelhofen. “People and Pollution of Copsa Mica”. Fragileecologies. (2005) July 22.
http://www.fragilecologies.com/july22_05.html
http://www.un.org/esa/earthsummit/romn-cp.htm
http://www.unido.org/data/Project/Project.cfm?c=4578
BHOPAL, INDIA
Potentially affected people: 150,000 at the time of the accident
Type of pollutants: VOCs, carbaryl, and BHC compounds
Site Description: The Bhopal Disaster of 1984 is
considered the worst industrial disaster in history. It was caused by the
accidental release of 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) from Union Carbide
India, a pesticide plant located in the heart of the city of Bhopal, in the
Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.
A holding tank with stored MIC overheated and released toxic
heavier-than-air MIC gas, which rolled along the ground through the surrounding
streets killing thousands outright. The gases also injured anywhere from
150,000 to 600,000 people, at least 15,000 of whom later died. In 2002 a
comprehensive study was performed on the chemical stockpiles at the UCIL
facility. Organic compounds detected in
the solid wastes left unattended and insecure are toxic, persistent and
bio-accumulative. For the human health
concerns, both carbaryl and BHC compounds have been found in all piles which could
be major contaminants of concern. Outside the factory, there were four samples
taken from solar evaporation ponds that have also been very high in this
contamination.
Cleanup Activity: Progress of this site is currently
stalled. The factory was owned by Union
Carbide, who sold the entire site to the Government of India in an agreement
that included a fund for compensation of victims, and money to clean up the
site. Union Carbide was subsequently
purchased by Dow Chemical (without the Bhopal asset). NGO activists in India and elsewhere want to
make Dow responsible for the clean-up, not the government, to set an
international precedent. This has
stalled clean-up activities, and has precluded most agencies from even entering
the site.
E. Broughton. “The Bhopal
disaster and its aftermath: a review”. Environmental Health. (2005) 4:6. http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15882472
R. Stringer, I Labunska, K Brigden,
& D. Santillo. “Chemical
Stockpiles at Union Carbide India Limited in Bhopal: an investigation.” Greenpeace Research Laboratories. Technical Notes. (2002) November.
http://webdrive.service.emory.edu/users/vdhara/www.BhopalPublications/
www.webdrive.service.emory.edu.
S. Acquilla, R. Bertell, V.R. Dhara,
G. Tononi. “Aftermath of
the world’s worst chemical disaster Bhopal, December 1984” Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process
Industries. (2005) 18 268-273.
KOMI,
RUSSIA
Potentially affected people: 46,000
Type of pollutants: Benzene,
ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene and other petroleum related chemicals
Site description: The oil spill
near the town of Usinsk in Northern Russia (Komi republic) is one of the most
serious environmental disasters of the decade. The pipeline just south of the
Arctic Circle had been leaking since February 1994 but the oil was contained
within a dike built for this purpose. On
October 1 of that year the dike collapsed because of cold and snow. Following
the collapse, around 102,000 tons of oil began to pour onto the Siberian
tundra. The spill reached the Kolva
River, a tributary of the Pechora River, which falls into the Barents Sea. Life within the rivers as well as the fragile
environment of the Artic have been seriously endangered by this oil spill.
Experts estimate the spill to be eight times greater than the Exxon Valdez oil
spill. The ruptured pipeline is the
third largest oil spill in history. Along the oil pipelines, which experience
hundreds of leaks and breakages each year, the ground is saturated with oil. Some
of the oil has already seeped into the water table. The oil spread across 170 acres of streams
and fragile bogs and marshland.
Local villagers have suffered for years
from the effects of the petroleum pollution from the many oil spills in the
region. Most natives are worried about the fish living in the Kolva River. Exclaimed one resident, "The river used
to have lots of fish, now there are hardly any at all and when we cook them
they smell bad...people here survive but they are worried about the
future".
Cleanup Activities: The Russian government
has assumed responsibility for the cleanup of this oil spill. The European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development has lent the clean-up operation $25 million and the World Bank has
provided $100 million. A US-Australian
joint venture (AES/Hartec) was also hired to clean up the spill. Lake Schuchye
was heavily polluted, but reductions with flotation technology reduced the
hydrocarbons from 53,3 g/kg to 2.2 g/kg, removing 157 tons of crude oil.
”The Russian
Arctic Oil Spill”. Trade and Environment
Database (TED). (1997) Jan. 11.
http://www.american.edu/ted/komi.htm
A. V. Yablokov.
“Environmental Problems in North-West Russia”. International Network of Engineers and
Scientists against proliferation (inesap). (1997) August.
http://www.inesap.org/bulletin15/bul15art09.htm
S. V. Lushnikov, Y. A. Frank, and D. S. Vorobyov. “Oil
decontamination of bottom sediments experimental work results”. Earth Sciences Research journal.
(2006). 10 (1): 35-40.
SPOLANA, CZECH
REPUBLIC
Potentially affected people: 250,000
Type of pollutants: Dioxins, DDT, DDE, endrin, diendrin,
lindane, benzene, 2,4,5-T, heptachlor, chloroform, HCB, HCH etc.
Site description: The chemical factory Spolana Neratovice
is situated approximately 25 kilometres north of Prague on the river Elbe. From 1965 to 1968 it produced chlorine
herbicide 2,4,5-T. During production, a huge amount of dioxins were created.
Although these buildings were abandoned and closed more than 30 years ago, they
contain remnants of contaminated facilities, raw materials and intermediates
from the cancelled production. The ground water under Spolana is contaminated
with dioxins, as well as other toxic chemical substances like: DDT, DDE,
endrin, diendrin, lindane, benzene, 2,4,5-T, heptachlor, chloroform, HCB, and
HCH.
The dangers of dioxins in the air of the contaminated buildings
was proven by an experiment conducted by the Toxicology Department of the
Military Medical Academy of J. E. Purkyne in Hradec Kralove. Chemical analysis proved an extremely high degree
of contamination of building, air, soil and ground water.
Cleanup Activities: Altogether, approximately 35,000 tons
of dangerous waste will be dug up and treated at an on-site heat plant
constructed by SITA. The goal is to transform one of the worst pollution
legacies - of the many left by the former communist regime - into a "clean
industrial site" by the end of 2008, as demanded by the state holding
company, the National Property Fund (FNM). The cleanup operation will cost
around 2.7 billion CZK (US$120 million) and will be financed by drawing on
funds from the sale of Spolana and its parent company, Unipetrol. Non-qualified
workers will be paid around 10 euros an hour, well above the average Czech
wage, according to SITA.
“Clean up launched at one of Czech Republic
most dangerous pollution blackspots”. TerraDaily
(2006) Jan 24.
http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Clean_Up_Launched_At_One_Of_Czech_Republic_Most_Dangerous_Pollution_Blackspots.html
http://www.greenpeace.cz/agentorange/index_en.shtml
J. Velinger. “Major clean up to get underway
at Czech Republic’s Spolana plant”. Radio Prague-the international service of
Czech Radio. (2006) Jan 25. http://www.radio.cz/en/article/75116
NIGER DELTA,
NIGERIA
Potentially affected people: up to 300,000
Type of pollutants: Benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene
and other petroleum related chemicals
Site
description: Oil production in Nigeria has had environmental and human
consequences for the indigenous peoples who inhabit the areas surrounding oil
extraction, specifically in the Ogoni Region. Large oil spills have turned
areas of the Ogonis' homeland into wastelands. In mid-2001, for example, a
United Nations Internet page described Yaata, an Ogoni village, an area where
"dying vegetation in various shades of ochre stretch as far as the eye can
see, poisoned by soil turned soggy and a dark, greasy hue since crude oil began
seeping through over a month ago." On April 29, at the Royal/Dutch Shell
Yorla oil field, a "quake-like tremor sent shockwaves onto Yaata and
surrounding villages." (Nigeria: Focus, 2001) Within minutes, before
people could guess the cause, jets of crude oil were already shooting up 100
meters, raining on the surroundings. Intense fumes of natural gas followed the
oil plume, as the people of the village were forced to evacuate. The area
suffered an average of 190 spills/year between 1989-1996, involving on average
319,200 gallons of oil from high-pressure pipelines that were laid above ground
through villages and farmlands. The spilled oil seeped further into the earth,
contaminating underground water for miles around, rendering hundreds of acres
of once arable land, toxic.
Cleanup Activity: Many of the
oil spills that plague the Niger Delta are believed to be the results of
deliberate acts of sabotage. These acts are often political in nature and
therefore it has been acknowledged that reforms to bring political stability to
the region are a necessary first step in dealing with this problem. In response
to spills in the fall of 2000, the multi-national oil company Royal Dutch Shell cut its
production in Nigeria's Niger Delta region by about 130,000 barrels per day to
prevent the spills from spreading. However, according to NGO reports, the
company is doing little to cleanup the site, which accounts for 10% of Shell’s
oil production, and is failing to invest in its infrastructure to prevent pollution.
"Shell says Ogoni Oil Blow-out Now under Control." May
7, 2001.
Integrated Regional Information Networks. United Nations Office
for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs, June 12, 2001.
http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200105070222.html
B. E. Johansen. “Nigeria:
The Ogoni: Oil, Blood, and the Death of a Homeland”. Indigenous peoples and environmental issues:
An encyclopedia. (2001).
http://www.ratical.org/ratville/IPEIE/Ogoni.htm
“SHELL Petroleum Development Corporation (SPDC) and
the community of Rukpokwu, Rivers State” Amnesty International USA. (2006). http://www.amnestyusa.org/business/nigeria.html
OMAI , GUYANA
Potentially affected people: 50,000
Type of pollutants: Cyanide, heavy metals
Site Description: A breach of a waste tailings pond in
August 1995 at a mine site owned by Omai Gold Mines Ltd. (OGML), allowed an
estimated 3.5 million cubic meters (120 million gallons) of toxic effluent
containing cyanide and copper as well as other heavy metals into the Omai and
Essequibo rivers. The spill was the fourth cyanide accident at the facility in 1995.
Many of the 50,000 residents upstream, fish, boat, bathe and drink water from
the river. Much of the biota in the Omai
River was feared to have been killed, but it was hoped that the sheer volume of
water flowing into the Essequibo during the wet season might rapidly dilute the
poison. However, Amerindians, traders and miners living along the riverbank
reported not only dead fish but also wild hogs floating belly-up and complaints
about skin rashes and blistering from using river water endured for two months
after the accident. The government
issued warnings to all residents downriver of the mine to cease using the river
for washing, drinking and fishing.
Cleanup Activity: No current information on cleanup
activity is available.
“Cyanide Disaster: The Omai Spill Continues” Saxakali Magazine
V3N1. (1997).
http://saxakali.com/saxakali-magazine/saxmag31e3.html
R. S. Carson. “Cyanide River Disaster in Guyana” Albion Monitor (1995) Sept. 2.
http://www.monitor.net/monitor/9-2-95/guyana.html
M. Colchester. “Guyana:fragile frontier”. Race and Class
(1997) 38.
http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5000437213&er=deny
NEW ORLEANS,
UNITED STATES
Potentially affected people: 500,000
Type of pollutants: Chemicals, petroleum residuals, VOCs,
heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and nickel, diesel range organics,
benzo(a)pyrene
Site
Description: Since the levee breach in the Lower Ninth Ward, and subsequent
flooding of the city, New Orleans now poses substantial health risks to those
returning to the city. Thirty-seven percent of more than 200 samples taken in
Orleans Parish exceed the Louisiana state cleanup level for soil in residential
neighborhoods. There are seven locations in residential neighborhoods of
Mid-City, Gentilly, Lakeview and New Orleans East where arsenic levels are more
than 100 times higher than the EPA soil safety guideline and as much as 6.5
times higher than the Louisiana cleanup and investigation level. More than half
of the samples collected in several neighborhoods, and more than 25 percent of
the samples collected across the New Orleans area, likely meet the EPA's
definition of a hazardous waste. NRDC's analysis identified "hot
spots" of lead contamination at levels as much as three times higher than
the Louisiana soil cleanup and investigation level in Gentilly, Bywater,
Mid-City and the Lower Ninth Ward. As
much as 91 percent of the EPA samples were found to contain significant amounts
of diesel fuel ingredients. In fact, every EPA sample from the districts of
Uptown/Carrollton and Central City/Garden exceeds the state cleanup and
investigation standard for diesel contamination, as do more than 90 percent of
the samples from Mid-City, Gentilly, Bywater, New Orleans East, and Arabi in
St. Bernard Parish. NRDC also identified eight hot spots where levels of
diesel-range organics are more than 100 times higher than the LDEQ soil cleanup
and investigation standard for residential neighborhoods.
The analysis
also found high levels of benzo(a)pyrene, one of the most toxic compounds in
soot and petroleum products. Benzo(a)pyrene levels exceed Louisiana cleanup and
investigation standards in 57 percent of the samples in Orleans Parish. In general, the neighborhoods with high
levels of diesel fuel contamination also have higher levels of benzo(a)pyrene
contamination. In New Orleans' Bywater neighborhood, where the Agricultural
Street Landfill Superfund Site is located, the average level of this
contaminant is more than 18 times higher than the applicable LDEQ cleanup and
investigation standard, while the peak level is more than 50 times higher than
the state soil cleanup level.
This conclusion
is based on thresholds for acute exposures, typically experienced by emergency responders
who are expected to interact with the contaminated area for limited duration.
To date, the EPA has not
assessed sediment-sampling data using long-term residential standards. These
latter standards reflect long-term exposure typical to a family residing at the
contaminated property. Consequently, contamination levels that are acceptable
for short-term exposure by emergency responders are not necessarily at safe
levels for habitability. As such, it can be surmised that current soil
contamination levels surpass healthy levels for residency throughout the flood
zone. Current contamination levels present an even higher risk to children,
elderly, and other health-sensitive individuals.
Cleanup
Activities
Beyond sediment
sampling, neither EPA nor the Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality
(DEQ) has conducted any soil remediation nor outlined a process by which this
is to occur. Furthermore, no literature or guidance has been provided to
residential or commercial property owners concerning soil contamination and
options for property assessment and remediation. Lastly, no clearly defined
procedures exist whereby property owners can report additional evidence of
contamination nor request additional monitoring or information on options for
assessment and remediation. Jeffrey Thomas, on behalf of the BNOB City
Planning Committee, has identified three leading environmental health issues
that must be addressed within the Master City Plan. They include monitoring,
remediation, and redevelopment of soil contaminated properties, of mold
generated by Hurricane Katrina flooding, and of Pre-Katrina contaminated
properties, including superfund sites, brownfields, and other active or
abandoned locations.
1. G. M. Solomon, M.
Rotkin-Ellman. “Contaminants in New Orleans
Sediment”. An Analysis of EPA Data by
National Resources Defense Council. (2006) February
http://www.nrdc.org/health/effects/katrinadata/sedimentepa.pdf
2. A. Appel. “New Orleans floodwater fouled with bacteria,
chemicals.” National Geographic. (2005) Sept. 7.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0907_050907_floodwater.html
3. J. Thomas.
“Environmental health issues & suggested policies in developing the
New Orleans master city plan” BNOB City
Planning Committee, “Bring New Orleans Back”.
http://www.bringneworleansback.org/Portals/BringNewOrleansBack/portal.aspx?tabid=127
MT. DIWALWAL, PHILIPPINES
Potentially affected people: 50,000
Type of pollutants: Mercury and cyanide
Site Description: Mt. Diwalwal is located in the Southeastern region
of the Philippines. In 1982, the discovery of gold on this mountain triggered a
gold rush to an area of 729 hectares. In the opinion of the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), it is the largest gold deposit in the
world. An estimated $1.8 billion worth of gold reserves remain untapped in the
5,000-hectare mountain where some 30,000 small-scale miners operate, many
illegally. The Naboc and Agusan rivers are grossly contaminated with mercury
and cyanide from mining operations.
An op-ed item in
September 2001 quoted a research finding that 86% of the miners in Diwalwal
were contaminated with mercury. A study conducted by the University of
Philippines and the Philippine General Hospital found 38% of the residents of
Diwalwal had dangerous levels of mercury in their bodies. Another study by the
Department of Health, National Poison Control Information Service and
Department of Health, Environment and Occupational Health found that mercury
exposure from artisanal gold mining had resulted in blood mercury levels in
workers exceeding WHO standards. Health effects included poor memory, anosmia,
abnormal gait and balance.
Another study found
large concentrations of mercury in the Naboc River, in which was being used on
the fields for irrigation. The mercury
in the rice paddy soils exceeded the UK and Canadian soil quality thresholds
for agricultural soils. The addition of
rice, fish, mussels of the Naboc-Babag area dietary weekly sustenance averages
285 mg Methylmercury, which is over three times the recommended dietary dose.
Cleanup
Activities: In 2002 the government
assumed control of the mine site in an effort to manage the mining operations
and better provide for the workers there. The environment department, in an
effort to legitimize the operations of subsistence miners, signed service
contracts, the legality of which are now being questioned.
“Illegal mining blamed for Mt. Diwalwal
blast”. Balita Organization.
(2005) October 28
http://news.balita.ph/html/article.php/20051028210717875
S. S. Coronel. “Misery Mountain: In Diwalwal, Davao del
Norte, gold is more precious than human lives”. Public Eye. (1995)
Oct-Dec 1 (4). http://www.pcij.org/blog/?p=466
J. D. Appleton, J.
M. Weeks, JPS Calvez, C. Beinhoff.
“Impacts of mercury contaminated mining waste on soil quality, crops,
bivalves, and fish in the Naboc River area, Mindanao, Phillipines”. Science of the Total Environment. (2006) 354 198-211.
G.S. Drasch, S
Bose-O’Reilly, C. Beinhoff, G. Roider, S. Maydl. “The Mt Diwata study on the Philippines
1999—assessing mercury intoxication of the population by small scale gold
mining” Science of the Total
Environment. (2001) 267 (1-3) 151-168.
ARJO, ETHIOPIA
Potentially affected people: 13,000
Type of pollutants: DDT, Malathion, pirimiphos-methyl, and
fenitrothion
Site description: The pesticides were brought to Arjo,
Ethiopia, many years ago to control locusts and other pests, but they were
never used. Located in a single story building and in a dilapidated old barn
nearby, approximately 5.5 tons of old pesticides (including DDT, Malathion,
Pirimiphos-methyl, and Fenitrothion} are stored in drums, boxes and bags. Some
of the walls are cracked and toxic waste is leaking into the ground. The waste
sites are secured only with a simple lock; there are no special security
measures. Family huts, only a few meters away, surround the two dumpsites.
Women prepare food nearby, while children play and goats and sheep graze around
the perimeter of the buildings. The villagers complain about health problems,
including headaches, nausea and coughing.
Cleanup Activity: In October
2002, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) pledged US$25 million to the Africa
Stockpiles Program (ASP) which aims to clean up and safely dispose of over
50,000 tons of obsolete pesticides stockpiled throughout Africa. In officially endorsing phase one of the ASP
program, the GEF Council funding pledge was made with the understanding that
US$35 million in co-financing will be contributed by government aid agencies,
the private sector and other donors. A condition of funding will be the
ratification of the global Stockholm Persistent Organic Pollutants Convention.
The African Stockpiles Program will take place over 12-15 years. The first
phase will be completed in 2003-2006, and involve 15 countries.
“Obsolete pesticides
threaten communities in Ethiopia.” Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2001) May
http://www.fao.org/News/2001/010503-e.htm
“Funds for Clearing
toxic pesticide stockpiles in Africa”.
Global Pesticide Campaigner. (2002) 12 (3). http://www.panna.org/resources/gpc/gpc_200212.12.3.12.dv.html
“Cleaning up
obsolute pesticides” Africa Stockpiles Programme. (2003) Aug 7. http://www.africastockpiles.org/pr/080703.html
HANFORD, UNITED
STATES
Potentially affected people: potentially130,000
Type of pollutants: Radioactive waste
Site description: From 1943 to 1987 Hanford produced
plutonium for nuclear weapons, using a line of nuclear reactors along the
Columbia River. Enormous amounts of radioactive and chemical waste were
generated during the site’s production period. Since the production of
plutonium ceased, Hanford’s only mission has been cleanup of the radioactive
waste.
The Hanford Site includes approximately 53 million gallons of
high-level liquid waste in 177 underground storage tanks, roughly the size of
three-story buildings, buried in Hanford’s central area, about 12 miles from
the river. It also contains 2,300 tons (2,100 metric tons) of spent nuclear fuel, 12
tons (11 metric tons) of plutonium in various forms, about 25 million cubic
feet (750,000 cubic meters) of buried or stored solid waste, and about 270
billion gallons (a trillion liters) of groundwater contaminated above drinking
water standards, spread out over about 80 square miles (208 square kilometers),
more than 1,700 waste sites, and about 500 contaminated facilities.
Over the years, 70 of the tanks have leaked about one million
gallons of waste into the soil. At least some of the leaked tank waste has
reached the groundwater, which eventually flows into the river. Estimated time
for the tank waste to reach the river is anywhere from 7 years to a couple of
generations. How badly it damages the river depends on how much gets there and
when. According to a new federal study, men who
grew up near the Hanford nuclear reservation in south-central Washington during
the 1940s and 1950s have a slightly higher risk of developing thyroid disease.
Cleanup Activity: The Hanford site is reportedly costing
Americans $1.4 million a day to build a facility that will safely treat
millions of gallons of radioactive and toxic waste currently stored in
leak-prone underground tanks, according to the Seattle PI. Construction is presently under way on the massive
"vitrification" project, which eventually would turn the waste into a
glassy compound in order to trap the radioactive material for safer
storage. The department's contractor,
however, has halted most of the building due to safety and technical problems.
Inefficient management has pushed the projects completion date back from 2011
to possibly 2017 while driving up the cost of the project by billions,
according to the Army Corps of Engineers.
Department of Energy: Hanford
"Study ties thyroid ills to Hanford." Seattle Times. (2006)
http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/health/2003155120_hanford27m.html
Lisa Stiffler and Charles Pope. “Hanford cleanup cost soars to
$11.3 billion…if Congress will pay.” Seattle Post Intelligence. May 1,
2006.
http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/268605_hanford01.html
VOLGOGRAD,
RUSSIA
Potentially affected people: More than 1 million
Type of pollutants: SO2, sulfates, CO, NOx,
phenol, particulates, HCl, ammonia, formaldehyde, magnesium, chlorides,
phosphorus, copper, zinc, fluorides, oil products, organic pollutants, benzene,
benzapyrene, chlorobenzene, cadmium, hydrocarbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
hexavalent chromium, formaldehyde, nickel, vinyl chloride, polyvinyl chloride
dust, benzapyrene sorbed on soot
Site description: Volgograd is a large industrial city
situated on the Volga River. Active industries including oil refining,
chemicals manufacturing, non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgies, coupled with
pollution from transportation has rendered the air and water extremely polluted.
Volgograd obtains its drinking water supplies from the Volga, which needs to be
treated in order to meet health standards.
Motor vehicle exhaust accounts for 38% of all emissions, and are a
major cause of environmental damage. Industrial production activities result in
emissions of more than 1 million tons of toxic wastes into the atmosphere, only
18% of which are recovered and neutralized. Authorized dumps and waste disposal
sites occupy 5200 hectares of land. Effluent discharge into small water bodies
totals 268 million m3, including 51.6 million m3 of untreated, polluted water.
Seventy-three companies with 114 on-site water outlets where scientific
investigations are carried out are currently being monitored, as are the Volga
and Don rivers. Damaged land covers an area of 2800 hectares. According to
medical statistics for 1993-1995, more than 6 thousand cases of malignant
tumors were registered in Volgograd annually.
Cleanup Activity: In mid-1993,
Volgograd was chosen as the test site for the initial phase of a four-year
Russia Air Management Program (RAMP). Operating from 1995 to 1998, the project
aimed
to test new methods of air quality management techniques and policies. The
results of the program were then circulated throughout the Russian Federation. The program was managed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency in conjunction with the Institute for Sustainable Communities (ISC) and
other Russian organizations.
The program created the Center for
Environmental Training (CET), which promoted citizen participation through the
education of NGOs, business and government leaders. Opening in October 1995,
the CET continues to provide training to these various sectors of the Russian
Federation.
“Description of ISC projects in Russia.” Institute for Sustainable
Communities. (2006)
http://www.iscvt.org/programs/psrussia.html
“Volgograd Region”
Kommersant: Russia’s Daily Online.
(2004) March 8.
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?idr=422&id=-78
“Shedding light on skin cancer”
Environmental health perspectives. (1994). 102 (2).
http://www.ehponline.org/docs/1994/102-2/forum.html
MAGNITOGORSK,
RUSSIA
Potentially affected people: 460,000
Type of pollutants: Lead, Sulfur dioxide, Heavy metals and
air pollutants
Site description: In an area where it is rumoured unusual
to give birth to a healthy baby, the local hospital estimates that only 1% of
all children in Magnitogorsk are in good health. Magnitogorsk, located in
Western Russia, lies on the banks of the Ural River. In the 1930's one of the
largest Russian iron and steel works was established here that produced steel
for half the Russian tanks during WW II. At optimum capacity it can produce up
to 7.5 million tons of steel. The industry used to belch out 650,000 tons of
industrial wastes, including 68 toxic chemicals, and polluted some 4,000 square
miles of Russia. According to a steelworker, none of the filtering devices were
in working condition. The highly increased cancer rates in the city are
attributed to severe pollution from dioxides and benzopyrene. According to
Nezavisimaya Gazeta, only 28% of infants born in 1992 were healthy, and only
27% had healthy mothers.
Cleanup Activity: in 2004 Blacksmith Institute’s
Technical Advisory Board reviewed the Magnitogorsk case. In 2005 the site was
visited by Blacksmith Institute, which intends to fund health studies and plans
to work with the plant to further reduce its pollution levels.
P. Green. “Breathing sulfur
and eating lead: Magnitogorsk’s children need oxygen cocktails.” U.S. News & World Report. (1992) April 13.
Blacksmith Institute Polluted Places.
http://www.pollutedplaces.org/region/e_europe/russia/magnito.shtml
KANPUR,
INDIA
Potentially affected people: 30,000
Type of pollutants: chromium, lead, and pesticides (γ-HCH and
malathion, dieldrin)
Site description: The city of Kanpur located on the banks of River
Ganges, with a population of around 2.4 million, is a major industrial hub in
the Northern India, home to a large number of industrial tanneries.
Noraiakheda, a nearby settlement of some 30,000 people, has developed over a
groundwater plume of tannery chemicals, including dyes and hexavalent chromium
(Cr VI) used in the preservation of leather. A basic chrome sulfate
manufacturing plant for tanneries has left a legacy of chromium, lead, and
pesticide (DDT and Lindane) pollution. Large amounts of the chemical waste
produced here were buried on the grounds of the old plant. This contaminated
material has polluted groundwater further spreading to wells and drinking
water. A 1997 study conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board on the
groundwater quality in Kanpur revealed chromium concentrations to range from
124 to 258 times higher than the permissible Indian limit for areas polluted by
tanneries.
Another study confirmed this leakage of chromium, along with many
other polluters associated with the tannery industry, by sampling along the
river Ganga. Along this stretch of the
river, the river becomes more polluted as the river flows downstream of Kanpur,
taking along high concentrations, above Indian standards, of these industrial
wastes.
Cleanup Activity: Blacksmith Institute supported
Ecofriends, a local NGO in Kanpur to increase public awareness about the
pollution problem in Kanpur and advocate for its cleanup. The NGO was
successful in installing two systems in the Noraiakheda area for improved
drinking water supplies.
The first pilot groundwater remediation project in India, initiated by
Blacksmith Institute in cooperation with the Central Pollution Control Board of
India and other Indian organizations to clean up hexavalent chromium, is slated
to begin by the end of 2005.
N. Sankararamakrishnan, A. K Sharma, R. Sanghi. “Organochlorine
and organophosphorous pesticide residues in ground water and surface waters of
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.” Environmental
International. (2005). 31 (1)
113-120.
A. R. Khwaja, R. Singh, and S. N. Tandon.
“Monitoring of Ganga water and sediments vis-ŕ-vis tannery pollution at
Kanpur (India): A case study.” Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment. (2001) 68
(1) 19-35.
D. C. Sharma. “By order of the
court: Environmental Cleanup in India”.
Environmental Health Perspect.
(2005) June; 113(6): A394-A397. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1257623
BAIE DE HANNE,
SENEGAL
Potentially affected people: 2 million
Type of pollutants: PCB, Heavy Metals, Chemicals, Tannery
Waste, Sewage, Solid Waste
Site description: Hann Bay is the most polluted region of
Senegal. The bay wraps around the industrial zone of the city of Dakar,
Senegal. It is a highly populated area, with local residents bathing in the
water, and numerous fishing boats along the crowded shore. Industrial pollution
along the banks from 1968 – 1997 has rendered the bay exceedingly toxic. The
seawater of the Hann Bay is reported to contain a concentration of fecal
streptococci – a type of bacteria found in human excrement – at a level 17
times higher than the limit recommended by the World Health Organization.
Cleanup Activities: Blacksmith Institute is working to fund and
support a group both within the Ministry of Industry and Ministry of
Environment to create a credible implementation plan that will install an
industrial waste treatment plan for the factories of the Hann region. Once the
effluent treatment plant is in operation, work can begin to remediate legacy
contamination from historical toxins. This plan will be submitted to
multilateral development agencies such as the World Bank, who has already
voiced their commitment to funding this project.
“Once pristine waters now a health hazard-Senegal” Science
in Africa. (2005) June. http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2005/june/hannbay.htm
ANKLESHWAR, INDIA
Potentially affected people: 150,000
Type of pollutants: Heavy metals
and chemicals
Site description: Ankleshwar
Industrial Estate (AIE), established by the Gujarat Industrial Development
Corporation, is the biggest industrial township in Asia covering 16 km2
and housing nearly 1600 units in different sectors, including 400 chemical
units.
These chemical plants produce insecticides, specialty chemicals, paint, solvents,
acids, and fuels to manufacture more than 25% of Gujarat's output of
pharmaceuticals, chemicals, pesticides, dyes, and intermediaries. If the share of
pollution is proportionate, AIE may be producing 5% of India's total chemical
pollution in just 16 km2. The plants in Ankleshwar process large
quantities of basic chemicals,. AIE has estimated that its members generate
between 250 million and 270 million liters of liquid waste per day (MLD), and
roughly 50,000 tons of solid waste annually (TPA).
A preliminary investigation in
communities living around Ankleshwar in 1998 had found over 65 polluted
groundwater sources. During an investigation around the Ankleshwar industrial
estate in December 2000, over 120 polluted ground water sources affecting a
population of over 100,000 in about 50 communities were found. Many communities
often had to use polluted water since no reasonable alternative source existed
or it was too far.
Cleanup Activity: Currently there is no known active
cleanup at this site.
V. Kathuria.
“Monitoring and enforcement: Is two-tier regulation robust?—A case study
of Ankleshwar, India.” Ecological
economics. (2006) 57(3) 477.
“What goes down must come up.” Rainwater harvesting organization. (1999) August. http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Crisis/Groundwater-pollution.htm
VAPI,
INDIA
Potentially affected people: 71,000
Type of pollutants: Chemicals and
heavy metals
Site description: The town of Vapi marks the southern end
of India's "Golden Corridor", a 400 km belt of industrial estates in
the state of Gujarat. The Vapi industrial estate was established in 1967 and is
made up of almost 2,500 companies mainly focused on chemical and
chemical products production. The products include the production
of petrochemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, textiles, dyes, fertilizers,
leather products, paint, and chlor-alkal. The waste products that are produced
contain heavy metals, cyanides, pesticides, complex aromatic compounds (such as
polychlorinated biphenyls), and other toxics Ankleshwar and Vapi were declared
‘‘critically polluted’’ by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in 1994.
This followed a survey that revealed that there was no system in place to
dispose of industrial waste at these estates.
A. Agarwal. “When will India be able to control pollution?” CSE Washington. (2000) Jan.
http://www.cseindia.org/hindu.htm
MARILAO,
PHILIPPINES:
Potentially affected people: 250,000
Type of pollutants: Hexavalent Chromium, Heavy Metals,
Pesticides, Sewage, Solid Waste, Tannery Waste.
Site description: The Marilao, Meycauayan and Obando
River System is extremely polluted receiving wastes from tanneries, gold and
precious metals refineries, Philippines largest lead smelter, and municipal
dumpsites. Significant industrial waste is haphazardly dumped into the
Meycauayan River, a source of domestic and agricultural water for the 250,000
people living in and around Manila. Substantial contamination comes from
small-scale lead recycling facilities along the river at Marilao, and from the
many tanneries that dump untreated hexavalent chromium wastewater into the
river. Furthermore, investigations by Greenpeace show that from 2000 to 2001,
New Zealand has been exporting used lead acid batteries to the Philippines for
recycling at a lead smelting plant in Marilao which has long been the subject
of complaints from concerned residents and ex-workers.
The leaking of lead into the river has had a severe effect on the
health of the local population with complaints of nausea, burning eyes
sensation, and various respiratory ailments, reports which have been confirmed
by a series of Greenpeace investigations conducted in 1996. This river also
feeds directly into the Manila Bay, and its effluents contaminate commercial
fishing areas.
Current Activity: Blacksmith is currently supporting the
creation of a coordinating body to encourage and guide clean up of this river.
This body will include senior representatives of the Philippines federal
government, the Asian Development Bank, the local municipality, industry
representatives and local community groups. They will together design and
implement remediation efforts over the next several years.
“Toxic Trash from New Zealand mocks global agreement to stop trade
in hazardous waste:pollutes local communities in the process.” Greenpeace (2003) July 2.
www.ban.org/ban_news/2003/030702_toxic_trash_new_zealand.html
J. Emmanuel. “Cleaning up toxic wastes in the Asia Pacific
region.” US Working Group for Philippine
Bases Clean-up. (1997) http://www.focusweb.org/publications/1997/Cleaning%20Up%20Toxic%20Wastes%20in%20the%20Asia%20Pacific%20Region.htm
Blacksmith Institute
Polluted Sites. http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/search3.php?project_id=27
PICNIC GARDENS,
KOLKATA, INDIA
Potentially affected people: up to 50,000
Type of pollutants: Lead
Site Description: Tiljala lies in
eastern Kolkata, the capital of
The toxic products of these factories have grossly affected the
health of the population. A survey conducted by the Chitranjan
Cancer Research Institute revealed symptoms of upper respiratory problems found in
41.3% of urban and 13.5% of rural subjects, while lower respiratory tract
symptoms were found in 47.8% of urban people in contrast to 35% of rural
controls. Respiratory symptoms were most frequent during winter when the
pollution level of the city with respect to Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM)
was highest. However, the frequency of the symptoms during monsoon was greater
than that of summer perhaps due to proliferation of microorganisms from
elevated humidity during monsoon.
Cleanup
Activities:
A study of the impact of lead contamination, and a plan for remediation are
being developed with Blacksmith’s support. The study will help to focus
government efforts to upgrade or move these industries, and to remediate the
area.
“Air pollution and human
health” Parivesh: A Newsletter from
central pollution control board. Ministry of Environment & Forests.
www.cpcb.nic.in/sept2001air2.htm
“Polluted places:
N. Dasgupta. “Greening small recycling firms: the case of
lead-smelting units in
“Problems associated
with development: towards the city of joy.”
GAIA: Environmental Information System.
(1995-2002). http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/CASES/IND/CAL/CALproblem.html